introduction and meaning of Power
Power implies the ability of an individual or a group to influence or change the behavior of other individuals or groups. Weber defines power as the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action. Power is an aspect of social relationships. An individual or a group does not hold power in isolation. They hold it in relation to others. To say that power is relational is also to imply it is behavioral. For if power consists in an inter-relationship between two actors. Then that inter relationship can only be understood in terms of one actor’s manifest behavior as affecting the manifest behavior of others. Further power is also situational. To know power one has necessarily to relate it to a specific situation or a specific role and an actor’s power in one particular situation or role may vary from that in another. Weber’s concept of power implies that those who hold power do so at the expense of others. It suggests that there is a fixed amount of power and therefore if some hold power others do not. This view is sometimes known as constant-sum concept of power. Talcott Parsons rejects this view and sees power as something possessed by society as a whole. According to him power is a generalized facility or resource in the society. In particular it is a capacity to mobilize the resources of the society for the attainment of goals for which a general public commitment has been made. In this sense the amount of power in society is measured by the degree to which collective goals are realized. Thus greater the efficiency of a social system for achieving the goals defined by its members more the power that exists in society. This view is sometimes known as variable -sum concept of power, since power in society is not seen as fixed or constant. Instead it is variable in the sense that it can increase or decrease. Alvin Gouldner has defined Power as among other things the ability to enforce one’s moral claims. The powerful can thus conventionalize their moral defaults. According to David Lockwood power must not only refer to the capacity to realize one’s ends in a conflict situation against the will of others, it must also include the capacity to prevent opposition arising in the first places.
2.2. Power structure:
Power structures are made up of decision makers who are largely responsible for the actions and non-actions in organizations at all levels. At the individual level, the ability to make decisions enables one to influence the behavior of another. At the community-system level, an organization or power group may be able to command the behavior of other individuals or organizations. System point of view, decisions involve every unit of human organization: the individual, the family, voluntary as opposed to involuntary organizations, the government, corporations, and the community (Hawley, 1971). Power is obtained by controlling that which is valued by people in society (Lasswell and Kaplan, 1950). Those who control economic institutions have power, influence decisions, and can implement decisions (Goldberg and Lindstromberg, 1966). Power structures are defined as the characteristic pattern within a community whereby resources are mobilized and sanctions employed in making decisions (Walton, 1967). Thus, a community is considered an organization of units held together through the use of power. Social science research indicates that influential community leaders usually control important economic and governmental positions, resources, and decisions.
2.3. Community power structure
Community power structure refers to the distribution of power at the local community level. There are numerous empirical studies to discover the nature of the distribution of power at community level. Among these community studies two categories can be clearly identified one supporting the major contention of the elite thesis and the other refuting the elitist argument and replacing it by what is known as the Pluralist Thesis.
Lloyd Hunter’s Community Power Structure based on the study of distribution of power in Atlantic is a prominent study in the elitist tradition. Hunter’s study was based on reputational approach. He made a preliminary list of 175 leaders who held formal important positions in politics, business and civic organizations and have reputation for leadership. Then he selected the panel of 14 judges representing religious, business and professional interest and asked them to select those who in their eyes are the top leaders. The result showed that half of these leaders were upper-class businessmen. The empirical study confirms the elitist thesis that a clear defined group of decision makers can be identified who are highly organized and who decisively dominate the public life of the organized and who decisively dominate the public life of the city.
Pluralists led by Robert Dahl have challenged the main elitist contention that a society is marked by the existence of a single centre of political power. They argued that in a society there are multiple centers of political power none of which are completely sovereign. The decision making maybe done by few but then this decision making cannot be understood except within the context of a continuous bargaining process among the elites and also of a general consensus established only through the mass approval which is hard to secure.
Further continuing his criticism of the elite model he argued that the elite theory confuses potential control with actual control. He agrees that it is quite possible that a group in the society has a very high potential for control. But that does not automatically make this group very powerful since the actual power of a group is established not only by a high potential for control but also by a high potential for nuclearity. Next according to Dahl the elite theories disregarded the fact that there may be different scopes of power and that a group having a high degree of influence over one scope may not necessarily have the same degree of influence over another scope within the same system.
Dahl selected three distinct decisions -areas covering urban development, public schools and political nominations. Within each area he studied a number of decisions thus he picks up three categories of political leaders which are political notables ,social notables and economic notables and enquires whether each of these groups participate in decision-making only in one or in all of the three issue areas. He takes as the sign of power the ability to successfully initiate or veto the proposals for policies. After examining all the available data Dahl admits that the in The New Haven a tiny group the leaders exert great influence on individuals who are influential in one sector of public activity are found not to be influential in another sector and further leaders exerting influence in different issue areas do not come to be drawn from a single homogenous stratum of the community.
Dahl’s pluralist model has been subjected to severe criticisms. Firstly the model wrongly locates power in concrete decisions or in activities having direct bearing on decision making. He ignores the fact that power is also exercised in creating and reinforcing social and political values and institutional practices that limit the scope of the political process to public consideration of only those issues that are comparatively harmless to the interest of the powerful. Thus the powerful groups may never let these issues which affect their vital interests come to the stage of public decision making. Thus Dahl’s model fails to differentiate the unimportant issues arising in the political arena.
2.3.1. Elite Theory
Elite theory is a theory of the state which seeks to describe and explain the power relationships in modern society. It argues that a small minority, comprised of members of the economic elite and policy-planning networks, hold the most power no matter what happens in elections in a country. Through positions in corporations or on corporate boards, and influence over the policy-planning networks through financial support of foundations or positions with think tanks or policy-discussion groups, members of the “elite” are able to have significant power over policy decisions of corporations and governments.
The theory stands in opposition to pluralism in suggesting that democracy is a utopian ideal. It also stands in opposition to state autonomy theory.
Elite theory developed in part as a reaction to Marxism. It rejected the Marxian idea that a classless society having an egalitarian structure could be realized after class struggle in every society. It regards Marxism as an ideology rather than an objective analysis of social systems. According to Elite theory man can never be liberated from the subjugation of an elite structure. The term Elite refers to those who excel. The classical elite theorists identify the governing elite in terms of superior personal qualities of those who exercise power. However, later versions of elite theory place less emphasis on the personal qualities of the powerful and more on the institutional framework of the society. They argued that the hierarchical organization of social institutions allows a minority to monopolize power. Another criticism of the elite theories against the Marxian view of distribution of power is that the ruling class too large and amorphous a group to be able to effectively wield power. In their view power is always exercised by a small cohesive group of the elite. Elite theory argues that all societies are divided into two main groups a ruling minority and the ruled. This situation is inevitable. If the proletarian revolution occurs it will merely result in the replacement of one ruling elite by another. Classical elite theory was propounded by Pareto and Mosca.
2.3.2. The Classical Elite Theory
Pareto places particular emphasis on psychological characteristics as the basis of the elite rule. He argues that there are two main types of governing elite which he calls Lions and Foxes. Lion achieve power because of their ability to take direct and decisive action and as their name suggests they tend to rule by cunning and guile by diplomatic manipulation.Pareto believed that European democracies provide an example of this type of elite. Members of governing elite own their position primarily to their personal qualities either to their Lion like or Fox like characteristics. Major change in society occurs when one elite replaces another a process Pareto calls circulation of elites. All elites tend to become decadent. They may become soft and ineffective with the pleasures of easy living and the privilege of power or set in their ways and too flexible to respond to changing circumstances. In addition each type of the elite lacks the imagination and guile necessary to maintain its rule and will have to admit the foxes from the masses to make up for this deficiency. Gradually foxes infiltrate the entire elite and so transform its character. Foxes however lack the ability to take forceful and decisive action which is essential at various times to retain power. Thus an organized minority of Lions committed to the restoration of strong government develops overthrowing the elite of foxes.
Like Pareto, Mosca believed that rule by a minority of elite would be an inevitable feature of social life and societies in history were divided into two classes- A class that rules and a class that is ruled. The first class always the less numerous performs all political functions, monopolies power and enjoys the advantages that power brings whereas the second the more numerous class is directed and controlled by the first. Like Pareto, Mosca believed that the ruling minority is superior to the most of the population because they possess certain qualities that give them material, intellectual and moral superiority. The content of these qualities may vary from society to society in some society’s courage and bravery in battle provided access to the elite. In others the skills and capacity needed to acquire wealth were valued. For both Pareto and Mosca democracies are merely another form of elite rule.
2.3.3. Pluralism:
The political theory of pluralism holds that political power in society does not lie with the electorate but is distributed between a wide numbers of groups. These groups may be trade unions, interest groups, business organizations, and any of a multitude of formal and informal coalitions.
2.3.4. Power Elite
C Wright Mills has presented a new version of the elite theory. Mills limits his analysis to the American society only. He does not believe that elite rule is inevitable. In fact he sees it as fairly recent development. He rejects the view that the members of the elite have superior qualities or psychological characteristics which distinguish them from the rest of the population. Instead he argues that the structure of institutions is such that those at the top of the institutional hierarchy largely monopolized power. Certain institutions can be pivotal positions in societies and the elite comprise those who hold command posts in those institutions. Mills identifies three key institutions: The major corporations, the Military and the Federal government.
Those who occupy the command posts in those institutions form three elites. In practice however the interest and activities of the elite are sufficiently similar and inter connected to form a single ruling minority which Mills terms the Power Elite. The cohesiveness and unity of the power elite is strengthened by the similarity of the backgrounds of its members and another change and overlapping of personnel between the three elites. Members are largely drawn from the upper strata of the society.
They share similar educational backgrounds and mix socially in the high prestige clubs. Within the power elite there is frequent interchange of personnel between the elites. Mills has also rejected the Marxian view that political power automatically follows economic power. He has shown a preference for power elite rather than ruling class.
According to him class is an economic term and rule is a political one. The ruling class in its political connotations does not allow enough autonomy to the political order and its agents and it says nothing about the military. Thus power elite is a more suitable term than ruling class.R.K Merton has further supported Mills view that the power elite are recruited from the same social class and are educated in similar prestigious colleges and schools and have similar orientation.
2.4. Political Parties
A political party is essentially a social group having associative type of social relationship activity and inters personal relationship. Membership rests on formally free recruitment. It is a social group because firstly it embodies the system of interdependent activity and inter- personal relationships. Secondly it operates in terms of goal oriented coordinated actions. In so far it demands from its members of rational direction of their behavior towards commonly acknowledged goal.
The goal of a political party is to secure political power and hold it either singly or in cooperation with the other political parties. A political party is very much a clientele-oriented organization that is a party has always been on gaining as much clientele as possible and hence it tries to remain as open as possible to its potential members. The party is a mutually exploitative relationship as it is joined by those who would use it. Gabriel Almond defined political party as the socialized aggregation structure of modern societies
2.4.1. Functions of a Political Party
A political party performs a wide range of functions an important one among them is the aggregation of interests. A political party is multi-interested group that represent diverse interests of the society. It tries to harmonize these interests with each other; bridges antagonism between different groups of the society and thereby seeks to produce different groups of the society and thereby seeks to produce a consensus among as many groups as possible. Political parties act as very effective mediator in setting disagreements in society in a peaceful and institutionalized manner.
A political party ensures a two way communication process between the government and the people as it is mainly through the parties that the government is constantly kept informed about the general demands of the society about the interests and attitudes of the people in relation to the governing process. Similarly it is through the parties organize and articulate public opinion in order to bring this opinion to bear on governmental decisions. They educate and instruct the people on public issues.
These activities of the party are not confined to election time alone but they go on simultaneously. Political recruitment is another function of the political party. In a democracy political elite are recruited mainly through political parties. Leaders of governments are normally leaders of the political parties. The party plays a very significant role in the process of political socialization in a country. Party is a very important instrument for political participation of the people; it is in course of extending the opportunities of this political participation to the people that the party socializes them. The political socialization performed by political parties may however assumes two distinct forms the party may either reinforce the existing political culture or it may try to alter the established political cultural pattern by generating new attitudes and beliefs.
2.4.2. French and Raven’s Five Forms of Power
The most common description of power is French and Raven (1960). This divides power into five different forms.
This is the power to force someone to do something against their will. It is often physical although other threats may be used. It is the power of dictators, despots and bullies. Coercion can result in physical harm, although its principal goal is compliance. Demonstrations of harm are often used to illustrate what will happen if compliance is not gained.
Coercion is also the ultimate power of all governments. Although it is often seen as negative, it is also used to keep the peace. Parents coerce young children who know no better. A person holds back their friend who is about to step out in front of a car.
Other forms of power can also be used in coercive ways, such as when a reward or expertise is withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion.
One of the main reasons we work is for the money we need to conduct our lives. There are many more forms of reward — in fact anything we find desirable can be a reward, from a million dollar yacht to a pat on the back.
Reward power is thus the ability to give other people what they want, and hence ask them to do things for you in exchange.
Rewards can also be used to punish, such as when they are withheld. The promise is essentially the same: do this and you will get that.
Legitimate power is that which is invested in a role. Kings, policemen and managers all have legitimate power. The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one with coercive power. Legitimate power can often thus be the acceptable face of raw power.
A common trap that people in such roles can fall into is to forget that people are obeying the position, not them. When they either fall from power or move onto other things, it can be a puzzling surprise that people who used to fawn at your feet no long do so.
This is the power from another person liking you or wanting to be like you. It is the power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all celebrities (by definition) as well as more local social leaders. In wanting to be like these people, we stand near them, hoping some of the charisma will rub off onto us.
Those with referent power can also use it for coercion. One of the things we fear most is social exclusion, and all it takes is a word from a social leader for us to be shunned by others in the group.
When I have knowledge and skill that someone else requires, then I have Expert power. This is a very common form of power and is the basis for a very large proportion of human collaboration, including most companies where the principle of specialization allows large and complex enterprises to be undertaken.
Expert power is that which is used by Trades Unions when they encourage their members to strike for better pay or working conditions. It is also the power of the specialist R&D Engineer when they threaten to leave unless they get an exorbitant pay rise or a seat by the window.
This type of power is further broken down later on as Information Power.
e.1) Information Power
While the difference between expert power and information power is subtle, people with this type of power are well-informed, up-to-date and also have the ability to persuade others. Another difference would be that people with Expert Power are perceived by his/her image of expertise to show credibility (i.e. a qualified doctor in a doctor uniform), while one with Information Power does not have a strict need to ‘look the part of a professional’, but they must keep up to date with new research, and have confidence in debating, or are persuasive.
2.5. ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ANALYSIS OF POWER STRUCTURE
Community Economic Development (CED) is action taken locally by a community to provide economic opportunities and improve social conditions in a sustainable way. Often CED initiatives aim to improve the lot of those who are disadvantaged. An aspect of “localizing economics,” CED is a community-centered process that blends social and economic development to foster the economic, social, ecological and cultural well-being of communities. It may form part of an ESCED initiative.
Community economic development is an alternative to conventional economic development. Its central tenet is that: “… problems facing communities—unemployment, poverty, job loss, environmental degradation and loss of community control—need to be addressed in a holistic and participatory way.”
Community Economic Development is often involved in a process of building Community Enterprises. Sometimes called the Third Sector, a community enterprise is a partnership between government agencies, small to medium enterprises, large national or transnational corporations and the not-for-profit sector, and aims for social, economic and/or environmental outcomes that none of these agencies could achieve for and by themselves.
A political party is essentially a social group having associative type of social relationship activity and inters personal relationship. Membership rests on formally free recruitment. It is a social group because firstly it embodies the system of interdependent activity and inter- personal relationships. Secondly it operates in terms of goal oriented coordinated actions. In so far it demands from its members of rational direction of their behavior towards commonly acknowledged goal.
As a rule of thumb, or if in doubt about the ‘politics’ of a particular community, it is useful to remember that politics is about how resources are owned, managed and distributed, and about who benefits and who is excluded. It is also about how particular groups define their identities and aspirations and by what means they pursue those objectives.
check your progress
A. True or False
a) Power implies the ability of an individual or a group to influence or change the behavior of other individuals or groups.
b) Community power structure refers to the distribution of power at the local community level.
c) The theory stands in favour to pluralism in suggesting that democracy is a utopian ideal.
d) Party is a very important instrument for political participation of the people
e) Elite theory argues that all societies are divided into two main groups a ruling minority and the ruled.
B. Fill in the blanks
a)____________________ believed that rule by a minority of elite would be an inevitable feature of social life
b) Community economic development is an alternative to ________________ economic development.
c) _________________ operates in terms of goal oriented coordinated actions.
d) A political party is very much a ______________________organization
e) ______________________ is the power from another person liking you or wanting to be like you.
SUMMARY
Power affects so many aspects of our life; it is essential that even those who do not intend to hold power positions in society to have certain level of Power. This chapter should give you better understanding of why people think and need power, and provide insights on its attributes. Weber defines power as “the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action”. Power is an aspect of social relationships.
The chapter has elaborated upon five major forms of Power and helps us to understand the community power structure. I Power structures are made up of decision makers who are largely responsible for the actions and non-actions in organizations at all levels. At the individual level, the ability to make decisions enables one to influence the behavior of another. At the community-system level, an organization or power group may be able to command the behavior of other individuals or organizations. It also gives us a brief introduction of the various theories of community power, and they are as follows:
It also focuses upon political parties and its functions. A political party is essentially a social group having associative type of social relationship activity and inters personal relationship. A political party is multi-interested group that represent diverse interests of the society. It tries to harmonize these interests with each other; bridges antagonism between different groups of the society and thereby seeks to produce different groups of the society and thereby seeks to produce a consensus among as many groups as possible. Political parties act as very effective mediator in setting disagreements in society in a peaceful and institutionalized manner.
Thus this block helps you to understand the basic concepts of power, its forms and power structure, Community power structure and its theories and how power is used as an influential tool in developing communities.
KEY TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
A a) True b) True c) False d) True e) True
B a) Mosca b) conventional c) political party d) clientele-oriented e) referent power
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Define: Power
2. What is Community Power Structure?
3. Discuss the various theories of community power structure.
4. Bring out the forms of Power.
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Community Power structure- a Social Worker’s Perspective
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING
INTRODUCTION -:
Any language can be acquired if one develops four basic skills in that language i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening and speaking are interactive processes that directly affect each other. Speaking is an expressive language skill in which the speaker uses verbal symbols to communicate, while listening is a receptive language skill, which involves the interpretation of those symbols into meaning. Writing is also expressive language skill in which the writer uses written symbols to communicate, while reading is a receptive language skill which involves the interpretation of those symbols into meaning.
Listening and speaking and also reading and writing were viewed as a separate subjects within the school curriculum and usually were taught as a number of discrete skills; however, the 1980s and early 1990s have brought another perceptive. Listening and speaking and also reading and writing are now considered interactive and taught as one communicative process. Interactive process of reading and writing skill, seen in the class, is very less. One can find more interactive process of listening and speaking skill in any type of class. ‘Machure M’ in his book named as ‘Oracy-current trends in Context’ (1988) termed this process as ‘oracy’ means ‘oral communication’ or ‘oral language’. It includes both listening and speaking.
THE TERM : THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH -:
Willbrand M. L. & Riecke R.D. in their book named as ‘Teaching oral communication in Elementary schools’ (1983) defined ‘Oral Communication’ as the process of interacting through heard and spoken messages in a variety of situations. And instruction which integrates the teaching of listening and speaking over various situations has been termed “the communicative approach to language teaching.”
The communicative approach is relative new, as most of the teachers and prescribed texts separate the instruction of listening and speaking. Usually when listening and speaking are separated, specific skills are identified in each area and a sequence of these skills is established. No particular attention is given to the situation, or context, in which a specific skill is to be used, as the focus is on teaching listening and speaking and not on communication. We can develop listening skill by conducting the entire lesson in that language only. We may make use of Audio-Visual aids such as tape-recorder, gramophone etc. we may make the students to listen to Radio lessons to develop the skill. Moreover we may develop the listening skill by ear-training exercises, by articulation exercises, by mimicry exercises or by exercises in fluency. We may develop the speaking skill by giving picture lessons, by saying and doing exercises, by arranging oral composition, by developing the ideas on the topic within their range, by reproducing telling or completing a story, by dramatization, by arranging talks and discussions, by asking questions. But special attention is not given to the situation or context, in which a specific skill, listening or speaking, is to be used. When specific attention is given on a situation or a context and develop these skills we follow communicative approach.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Although no single methodology has been described for the communicative approach, several characteristics are summarized as follow. –
Communicative approach stimulate ‘real life’ communicative experiences -:
Froese V in his book named as ‘Introduction to whole language teaching and learning’ (1991) mentioned this characteristics of communicative approach. Learners should conduct an interview because they actually need information. In role playing process, the purpose is to learn how to formulate appropriate questions. But here, as Froese V noted these activities should not only stimulate real life experiences but, whenever possible, should actually be real life experiences.
The learning task is content-based, theme-based, project-based or some combination of the three -:
Instruction in listening and speaking, as well as reading and writing, is given within the context of handling various learning tasks, which involve learners with language. This learning task is content based according to Early M & Tang M as described in their book named as Helping ESL students cope with content -based text (1991), ‘theme-based’ according to Candling C & Edelhoff C as described in their book Challenges (1982) and ‘project based’ according to Fried-Booth D as described in the book ‘Project Work’ (1986). Within the context of an interview, questioning skills can be taught. Students need the opportunity to express themselves through a variety of experiences and tasks.
Analysis of language is done in specific contexts -:
Language drills, recitation and isolation grammar exercises are not the ways to acquire any language. Analysis of language is done in specific contexts. Decontextualized language is not used as a basis for skill instruction.
The focus is not upon listening and speaking but upon using language to communicate and to learn -:
As students use language to learn in various subject areas, it becomes necessary for them to communicate with peers in large and small groups as well as with the teacher. Collaborative talk can occur between peers in quite an informal way or in more formal cooperative learning groups.
Listening and speaking skills as vehicles for learning across all subjects areas -:
Barnes D in his book named as ‘Oral language and learning’ (1990) described that listening and speaking become valuable not only as isolated skills or groups of skills, but as vehicles for learning across all subject areas. Oral communication should be integrated with other areas of instruction.
CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATIO AND PROGRAMMES.
Programs -:
Several programs have been developed in various parts of the world, which have been illustrative of the principles involved in the communicative approach to language.
Piepho H. E. & Bredella L. in their book named as ‘Contacts: Integriertes Englischlehrwerk fur Klassen’ (1976) have been discussed a program for German children learning English which exemplified many of the core ideas. The curriculum included a camping trip with students from many European countries participating and using English as the lingua franca. Actual maps an travel brochures were read and discussed. Many text types and opportunities for various and situations were presented in the classroom including several opportunities for students to study a prototype for a class meeting. Following these experiences, a class meeting was actually held for the purpose of making important decisions regarding a trip. Oral skills were taught in context as they were needed by students. For example, the past tense of the verb was introduced when someone needed language to retell an experience.
Boggs S. in his book named as ‘Speaking, Relating and Learning -: A study of Hawaiian Children at Home and at School’ (1986) described Kamehameha Early Education Program for Hawaiion Children based on this approach. Plattor E in his paper presented at the International oracy convention, Norwich titled as ‘Collaborative action research in listening – staff development and the teaching of oral language’ described. ‘English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Program’ for Junior high level Japanese students and Calgary Unquiry-Listening project in Canada are also based on these communicative approach.
The United Kingdom is moving in the direction of implementing a more communicative approach to language instruction. Cox B. in his book named as ‘Cox on Cox : A English Curriculum for the 1990s’ (1991) rightly mentioned that the working committee, to establish a national curriculum recommended a single attainment target for the listening and speaking profile the development of pupils understanding of the spoken work and the capacity to express themselves effectively in a variety of speaking and listening activities, matching style and response to audience and purpose.
Classroom Implementation
Little research has been done to indicate how the above characteristics might best be operationalised in the classroom, but some literature does exist on the subject.
1. Fundamentally it is important to establish an appropriate physical and psychological atmosphere in the classroom
Instructors must be dedicated to the belief that oral communication is an important for learning and be willing to arrange classroom furniture so that talk between students in large and small groups is convenient. The psychological atmosphere should be one in which students feel comfortable and take increasing risibility for their own learning.
2.Coakley and Wolvin in their book named a ‘Listening in the educational environment’ (1991) have suggested specific ways in which teachers effectively model listening in the classroom. So that they should follow communicative approach. These include the following –
(a) Providing a wait time for students to answer.
(b) Engaging in attending behaviors such as eye contact and responsive facial expression.
(c) Giving students undivided attention when they are speaking.
(d) Providing a supportive climate by being approachable.
(e) Not interrupting students.
(f) Withholding Judgments until students have finished speaking and
(g) Giving prompt and thoughtful responses to students questions.
3.Robinson S. in his book named as ‘Oral language Developing pragmatic skills and communicative competence’ (1988) has suggested that instructors can model the use of various speaking skills within appropriate classroom settings so that they should follow communicative approach. Important conversational skills include turn taking imitation strategies maintenance strategies and termination strategies. Coakley and Wolvin (1991) have viewed one of instructor’s role as that of presenter, and with that role such practices as speaking clearly with adequate volume and engaging listeners by means of appropriate nonverbal behavior can be modeled.
4 Many authors have suggested creative activities for involving students in various kinds of talking experiences. Drama, role-plying, puppetry, debate, formal reporting and small and large group discussions have been covered in language arts text books.
5 There are two types of communicative activities that can be
implemented in the class. One controlled communicative activities and the other, free communicative activities. Controlled communicative activities include situations creation, guessing games, information gap exercises, exchange of personal information etc and free communicative activities include pair work and group work, Eliciting, Role play etc.
6 To follow communicative approach in the class, one should use workouts. Workouts are language learning and language using activities, which enhance the learner’s overall acquisition process, providing by the teacher with variety of ways through which to make this process engaging and rewarding. Samples of such workouts are presented here under different categories.
6. 1 Operations/ Transformations enable learners to focus on semantico-grammatical features, which are necessary when aiming at accuracy in language use. All learners require such predictable and controlled workouts at times if their goal is to achieve accuracy in language production an interpretation. For example element of language are added, deleted, substituted, recorded, or combined; alternative language elements are presented so that learners must make a choice.
6.2 Warm-ups/Relaxes are motivational workouts, which add an element of enjoyment and personal involvement. They can be used at various points during the session, especially when a relief of tension or a change of pace is called for. For example, games, songs, physical activities, puzzles.
6.3 Information-Centered Tasks enable learners to use the language naturally while being fully engrossed in fact gathering activities. For example, share-and-tell in the classroom, gathering information outside the classroom, treasure hunts outside the classroom, interviews with peer and others.
6.4 Theatre Games encompass all activity types, which simulate reality within the classroom situation. These workouts are especially important since they enable the language session to broaden its context beyond the four walks of the classroom. For example, improvisation (creating a scene based on a given setting or situation); role playing (assuming the role of someone else, or playing oneself in a typical situation); play enacting; story telling.
6.5 Mediations/interventions are workouts, which enable learners to experience bridging information gaps while using the target language. For example, interacting with another or others based on incomplete information; interacting with others to change their opinions; talking one’s way out of difficult situation.
6.6 Group Dynamics and Experiential Tasks are group activities which create opportunity for sharing personal feelings and emotions among learners. For example, small groups or pairs solve problems or discuss issues, which center on topics of personal concern, sharing of self and feelings rather than general subject matter topics external to self.
6.7 Problem-Solving Tasks involve learners in making decisions about issues while using the target language, enabling them to focus on the features of the activity rather than on language usage. In this type of activity, learners are involved in a ‘whole-task’ process. For example, small group discussions around topical, political or local issues; posing a concrete problem about which the group must come to a consensus, make recommendations, and arrive a policy statement.
6.8 While similarly ‘whole-task’ focused, workouts which involve transferring and reconstruction information emphasize cognitive uses of language. For example, following a language stimulus, often a regarding passage: transferring information from text to a graphic display such as a chart; filling in forms; providing language to complete visual display such as a cartoon or photograph; making judgement about people’s motivates and intentions; putting sentence elements in sequence (the strip story.)
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
As the communicative approach is adopted to language learning, methods of assessment much change. A students performance can no longer be measured solely by a predetermined checklist of speaking and listening skills, but must reflect the effective use of language in different social situations. A students performance includes the speaker’s hearer’s ability to accomplish tasks with language, the ability to communicate and interpret intentions, knowledge of the functions that language can serve; the strategies that can be used to accomplish each function, and the knowledge of constraints of various social situations. These abilities can only be observed and assessed over a variety of situations in which various performances are appropriate. Wells G in his book named as ‘The Meaning Makers: Children Learning Language and Using Language to Learn’ (1986) has concluded after twelve years of research that linguistic interaction is a collaborative activity involving the establishment of triangular relationship between the speaker, the listener, and the context of the situation. Assessment must take place over a variety of realistic Classroom situations.
USING RESEARCH FROM THE SKILLS APPROACH
Considerably more research has been done on how to teach specific listening skills than on how to teach speaking skills. More research has defined listening either as unitary skill or a series of sub skills such as noted by Lundsteen in his paper ‘Listening : Its Impact at All Levels on Reading and the Other Language Arts’. These sub skills include (a) selecting facts and details (b) sequential ordering (c) selecting a main idea (d) Summarizing (e) relating one idea to another (f) inference making and (g) critical listening which includes analyzing comprehension is viewed as a set of sub skills , it appears that these skills can enhance the learning of these skills. Little or no research exists as to whether these specific sub skills are needed to cognitively structure a speaker’s message, but reviews of listening research have indicated that elementary students receiving direct instruction in specific listening skills do improve in those skills. It is noted by person D & Fielding L. in their research (1983).
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Scholars and researchers viewed oral communication as the integration of listening and speaking in a variety of contexts have done little to construct a theoretical mode from which to study this communication. This lack of communication model coupled with the paucity of speaking research and the fact that the bulk of listening as a writary skill or set of sub-skills rather than a complex, multidimensional skill has left the classroom instructor using a communication approach largely without a model or a research base to undergird methodology. However, if one examines the situation from the perceptive of the classroom teacher, one notices that during the course of oral communication activities such as discussions with peers students are often asked to demonstrate such subskills as the ability to summarize important points or to examine another speaker’s viewpoint when and if direct instruction is needed in these skills teachers can draw on techniques which were develop in the specific instruction of listening and speaking oral communication models need to be developed and future research needs to focus on how to operationalize the communicative approach in the classroom. As a part the research multiple means of assessment within various contexts need to be developed.
What is the person centered approach to communication?
How do you create trust and respect in communication with clients and staff? Are communication styles learnable, teachable? How?
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